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Primitives and Codespace Semantics#

In this part:

Overview#

Jac programs can target multiple execution environments -- a Python-based server, a JavaScript-based browser client, or a native LLVM-compiled binary -- yet all three share the same source language and the same set of primitive types, operators, and builtin functions. This page documents that fixed set of semantics: the contract that every Jac codespace must honor.

The key insight is that Jac's compiler does not simply transpile syntax; it implements a primitive codegen interface -- a collection of abstract emitter classes that each backend (Python/server, ECMAScript/client, Native/LLVM) must subclass. This ensures that an int behaves like an int, a list behaves like a list, and print() works -- regardless of where the code executes.

graph TD
    SRC["Jac Source Code"] --> COMPILER["Jac Compiler"]
    COMPILER --> PY["Python / Server Backend<br/><code>sv { }</code>"]
    COMPILER --> ES["ECMAScript / Client Backend<br/><code>cl { }</code>"]
    COMPILER --> NA["Native / LLVM Backend<br/><code>na { }</code>"]

    PY --> PRIM["Shared Primitive Semantics<br/>int, float, str, list, dict, ..."]
    ES --> PRIM
    NA --> PRIM

Codespace Model#

A codespace determines where your code runs. You select a codespace with either a file extension or an inline block prefix:

Codespace Block Prefix File Extension Compiles To Ecosystem
Server sv { } .sv.jac or .jac (default) Python PyPI
Client cl { } .cl.jac JavaScript / TypeScript npm
Native na { } .na.jac LLVM IR → machine code C ABI

Code outside any block defaults to the server codespace. Any .jac file can mix codespace blocks:

# Server (default codespace)
def add(a: int, b: int) -> int {
    return a + b;
}

cl {
    # Client -- compiles to JavaScript
    def greet(name: str) -> str {
        return "Hello, " + name;
    }
}

na {
    # Native -- compiles to machine code
    def fast_sum(n: int) -> int {
        has total: int = 0;
        for i in range(n) {
            total += i;
        }
        return total;
    }
}

Cross-Codespace Interop#

When code in one codespace calls a function in another, the compiler generates the interop layer automatically -- HTTP calls between server and client, FFI bridges between Python and native, serialization and deserialization at boundaries.

# Server function
def:pub fetch_items() -> list[dict] {
    return [{"id": 1, "name": "Item A"}];
}

cl {
    # Client calls server -- compiler generates the HTTP call
    async def load() -> None {
        items = await fetch_items();
    }
}

What Is Shared#

Regardless of codespace, the following are identical:

  • Primitive types -- int, float, str, bool, bytes, list, dict, set, tuple, frozenset, range, complex
  • Operator semantics -- + on two ints always means addition; + on two strings always means concatenation
  • Builtin functions -- print(), len(), range(), sorted(), etc.
  • Type conversion -- int(), str(), float(), bool(), etc.
  • Control flow -- if, for, while, match, comprehensions

What differs between codespaces is the underlying implementation: Python objects, JavaScript values, or LLVM IR instructions. The compiler guarantees behavioral equivalence through the primitive emitter contract described below.

Primitive Types#

Jac defines 12 primitive type families. Each type has a fixed set of named methods and operator behaviors that all backends must implement.

Numeric Types#

int -- Integer#

Arbitrary-precision integer (server), 64-bit integer (native), number / BigInt (client).

Named methods:

Method Description
bit_length() Number of bits needed to represent the value
bit_count() Number of set bits (popcount)
to_bytes(length, byteorder) Convert to bytes representation
as_integer_ratio() Return (numerator, denominator) pair
conjugate() Returns the value itself (complex compatibility)
from_bytes(bytes, byteorder) Static -- construct int from bytes

Operators:

Category Operators
Arithmetic + - * / // % **
Bitwise & \| ^ << >>
Comparison == != < > <= >=
Unary -x +x ~x

float -- Floating Point#

IEEE 754 double-precision (64-bit) across all codespaces.

Named methods:

Method Description
is_integer() True if the float is an exact integer value
as_integer_ratio() Exact (numerator, denominator) pair
conjugate() Returns the value itself
hex() Hexadecimal string representation
fromhex(s) Static -- construct float from hex string

Operators:

Category Operators
Arithmetic + - * / // % **
Comparison == != < > <= >=
Unary -x +x

complex -- Complex Number#

Complex number with real and imaginary parts.

Named methods:

Method Description
conjugate() Returns the complex conjugate

Operators:

Category Operators
Arithmetic + - * / **
Comparison == !=
Unary -x +x

No ordering on complex

Complex numbers support equality checks but not ordering (<, >, <=, >=) -- this is enforced across all codespaces.

String and Byte Types#

str -- String#

Unicode text string. Immutable.

Named methods:

Category Methods
Case conversion capitalize(), casefold(), lower(), upper(), title(), swapcase()
Searching count(), find(), rfind(), index(), rindex(), startswith(), endswith()
Modification replace(), strip(), lstrip(), rstrip(), removeprefix(), removesuffix()
Splitting split(), rsplit(), splitlines(), join(), partition(), rpartition()
Formatting format(), format_map(), center(), ljust(), rjust(), zfill(), expandtabs()
Character tests isalnum(), isalpha(), isascii(), isdecimal(), isdigit(), isidentifier(), islower(), isnumeric(), isprintable(), isspace(), istitle(), isupper()
Encoding encode()
Translation translate(), maketrans()

Operators:

Operator Meaning
+ Concatenation
* Repetition
% printf-style formatting
== != Equality
< > <= >= Lexicographic comparison
in Substring test

bytes -- Byte Sequence#

Immutable sequence of bytes (0-255). Mirrors most str methods but operates on byte values.

Named methods:

Category Methods
Encoding decode(), hex(), fromhex()
Searching count(), find(), rfind(), index(), rindex(), startswith(), endswith()
Modification replace(), strip(), lstrip(), rstrip(), removeprefix(), removesuffix()
Splitting split(), rsplit(), splitlines(), join(), partition(), rpartition()
Case (ASCII) capitalize(), lower(), upper(), title(), swapcase()
Char tests (ASCII) isalnum(), isalpha(), isascii(), isdigit(), islower(), isspace(), istitle(), isupper()
Alignment center(), ljust(), rjust(), zfill(), expandtabs()
Translation translate(), maketrans()

Operators:

Operator Meaning
+ Concatenation
* Repetition
% printf-style formatting
== != Equality
< > <= >= Lexicographic comparison
in Byte membership

Collection Types#

list -- Mutable Sequence#

Ordered, mutable collection. Supports indexing, slicing, and iteration.

Named methods:

Method Description
append(x) Add item to end
extend(iterable) Append all items from iterable
insert(i, x) Insert item at position
remove(x) Remove first occurrence
pop([i]) Remove and return item at index
clear() Remove all items
index(x) Index of first occurrence
count(x) Count occurrences
sort() Sort in-place
reverse() Reverse in-place
copy() Shallow copy

Operators:

Operator Meaning
+ Concatenation
* Repetition
== != Structural equality
< > <= >= Lexicographic comparison
in Membership test
+= Extend in-place
*= Repeat in-place

dict -- Key-Value Mapping#

Ordered mapping from keys to values (insertion order preserved).

Named methods:

Method Description
get(key[, default]) Get value or default
keys() View of keys
values() View of values
items() View of key-value pairs
pop(key[, default]) Remove and return value
popitem() Remove and return last pair
setdefault(key[, default]) Get or set default
update(mapping) Update from another mapping
clear() Remove all items
copy() Shallow copy
fromkeys(iterable[, value]) Static -- create dict from keys

Operators:

Operator Meaning
\| Merge (returns new dict)
== != Structural equality
in Key membership
\|= Update in-place

set -- Mutable Unordered Collection#

Unordered collection of unique hashable elements.

Named methods:

Category Methods
Mutation add(), remove(), discard(), pop(), clear()
Set algebra union(), intersection(), difference(), symmetric_difference()
In-place algebra update(), intersection_update(), difference_update(), symmetric_difference_update()
Tests issubset(), issuperset(), isdisjoint(), copy()

Operators:

Operator Meaning
\| Union
& Intersection
- Difference
^ Symmetric difference
== != Set equality
<= < Subset / proper subset
>= > Superset / proper superset
in Membership
\|= &= -= ^= In-place variants

frozenset -- Immutable Set#

Same semantics as set but immutable -- no mutation methods and no in-place operators. Supports all the same algebra operators and comparison operators.

tuple -- Immutable Sequence#

Ordered, immutable collection. Supports indexing and iteration.

Named methods:

Method Description
count(x) Count occurrences
index(x) Index of first occurrence

Operators:

Operator Meaning
+ Concatenation
* Repetition
== != Structural equality
< > <= >= Lexicographic comparison
in Membership test

range -- Immutable Integer Sequence#

Lazy integer sequence, typically used in for loops.

Named methods:

Method Description
count(x) Count occurrences
index(x) Index of value

Operators:

Operator Meaning
== != Equality
in Membership test

Fixed-Width Types (Native Codespace)#

The native codespace adds fixed-width types for C interop. These types map directly to hardware registers and C ABI types:

Jac Type Width Signed C Equivalent
i8 8-bit Yes int8_t
u8 8-bit No uint8_t
i16 16-bit Yes int16_t
u16 16-bit No uint16_t
i32 32-bit Yes int32_t
u32 32-bit No uint32_t
i64 64-bit Yes int64_t
u64 64-bit No uint64_t
f32 32-bit -- float
f64 64-bit -- double
c_void -- -- void*

The compiler automatically coerces between Jac's standard types (int = i64, float = f64) and fixed-width types at call boundaries.

Operator Semantics#

Operators in Jac have consistent meaning across codespaces. The following table summarizes which operators are defined for each primitive type family:

Arithmetic Operators#

Operator int float complex str bytes list tuple
+ add add add concat concat concat concat
- sub sub sub -- -- -- --
* mul mul mul repeat repeat repeat repeat
/ truediv truediv truediv -- -- -- --
// floordiv floordiv -- -- -- -- --
% mod mod -- format format -- --
** pow pow pow -- -- -- --

Comparison Operators#

Operator int float complex str bytes list tuple dict set
== != yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes
< > <= >= yes yes no lexicographic lexicographic lexicographic lexicographic no subset/superset

Bitwise Operators#

Operator int dict set
& bitwise AND -- intersection
\| bitwise OR merge union
^ bitwise XOR -- symmetric diff
<< >> shift -- --
~ invert -- --

Membership Operator#

The in operator is defined for all container types:

Type x in container tests
str Substring containment
bytes Byte membership
list Element membership
tuple Element membership
set / frozenset Element membership
dict Key membership
range Value membership

Builtin Functions#

These functions are available in every codespace. Each backend provides its own implementation, but the behavior is the same:

I/O#

Function Description
print(...) Output text to the console / debug log
input([prompt]) Read a line of text from stdin

Aggregation and Ordering#

Function Description
len(x) Length of a collection or string
abs(x) Absolute value
round(x[, n]) Round to n decimal places
min(...) Minimum value
max(...) Maximum value
sum(iterable) Sum of elements
sorted(iterable) Return a new sorted list
reversed(seq) Reverse iterator

Iteration#

Function Description
enumerate(iterable) Pairs of (index, value)
zip(...) Parallel iteration over multiple iterables
map(fn, iterable) Apply function to each element
filter(fn, iterable) Keep elements where function returns true
range([start,] stop[, step]) Integer sequence
iter(x) Get an iterator
next(iterator) Get next value from iterator

Type Checking#

Function Description
isinstance(obj, type) Check if object is instance of type
issubclass(cls, type) Check if class is subclass
type(obj) Get the type of an object
callable(obj) Check if object is callable

Introspection#

Function Description
id(obj) Unique identity of an object
hash(obj) Hash value
repr(obj) String representation
getattr(obj, name) Get attribute by name
setattr(obj, name, val) Set attribute by name
hasattr(obj, name) Check attribute existence
delattr(obj, name) Delete attribute
vars(obj) Dictionary of attributes
dir(obj) List of names in scope

Numeric Conversions#

Function Description
chr(i) Integer to Unicode character
ord(c) Character to integer
hex(i) Integer to hex string
oct(i) Integer to octal string
bin(i) Integer to binary string
pow(x, y[, z]) Power with optional modulus
divmod(a, b) (quotient, remainder) pair
any(iterable) True if any element is truthy
all(iterable) True if all elements are truthy

Type Constructors#

Every primitive type can be constructed explicitly:

Function Description
int(x) Convert to integer
float(x) Convert to float
str(x) Convert to string
bool(x) Convert to boolean
list(x) Convert to list
dict(x) Convert to dict
set(x) Convert to set
tuple(x) Convert to tuple
frozenset(x) Convert to frozenset
bytes(x) Convert to bytes
complex(re, im) Construct complex number
range(...) Construct range
slice(...) Construct slice
bytearray(x) Construct mutable byte array

Other#

Function Description
open(file, mode) Open a file
format(value, spec) Format a value
ascii(obj) ASCII representation

Backend Contract#

The primitive semantics are enforced through a system of abstract emitter classes defined in the compiler. Each class is parameterized on two types:

  • V -- the value representation (e.g., str for ECMAScript code generation, ir.Value for LLVM)
  • C -- the context type (e.g., ESEmitCtx, NativeEmitCtx)

Each backend must subclass and implement every emitter:

graph TD
    subgraph "Primitive Emitter Interface"
        INT["IntEmitter[V, C]"]
        FLOAT["FloatEmitter[V, C]"]
        STR["StrEmitter[V, C]"]
        BYTES["BytesEmitter[V, C]"]
        LIST["ListEmitter[V, C]"]
        DICT["DictEmitter[V, C]"]
        SET["SetEmitter[V, C]"]
        FROZEN["FrozensetEmitter[V, C]"]
        TUPLE["TupleEmitter[V, C]"]
        RANGE["RangeEmitter[V, C]"]
        COMPLEX["ComplexEmitter[V, C]"]
        BUILTIN["BuiltinEmitter[V, C]"]
    end

    subgraph "Server Backend"
        PY_INT["PyIntEmitter"]
        PY_STR["PyStrEmitter"]
        PY_ETC["..."]
    end

    subgraph "Client Backend"
        ES_INT["ESIntEmitter"]
        ES_STR["ESStrEmitter"]
        ES_ETC["..."]
    end

    subgraph "Native Backend"
        NA_INT["NativeIntEmitter"]
        NA_STR["NativeStrEmitter"]
        NA_ETC["..."]
    end

    INT --> PY_INT
    INT --> ES_INT
    INT --> NA_INT
    STR --> PY_STR
    STR --> ES_STR
    STR --> NA_STR

How It Works#

  1. The compiler parses your Jac source and builds a unified AST
  2. Type resolution determines the type of every expression
  3. Codespace routing assigns each block of code to its target backend
  4. Code generation calls the appropriate emitter method -- for example, "hello" + " world" calls StrEmitter.emit_op_add()
  5. Each backend's emitter produces the correct output for its target: Python string concatenation, JavaScript +, or LLVM @str_concat

If a backend has not yet implemented an operation, the emitter returns None, allowing the dispatch layer to fall back or raise an error at compile time.

What This Means for You#

As a Jac developer, you do not need to think about emitters. The important takeaway is:

  • The set of primitive types and their operations is fixed and uniform across all codespaces
  • You can write "hello".upper() in server, client, or native code and get the same result
  • Operators like +, in, == behave consistently regardless of compilation target
  • If a type or operation is available in one codespace, it is available (or will be) in all of them

This is what makes Jac's multi-target compilation practical: you learn one set of types and operations, and they work everywhere.

Learn More#

Related Reference: